Social psychologists define aggression as "intentional harm."
Social psychologists make a distinction between "instrumental" and "hostile" aggression.
Instrumental aggression is the intentional use of harmful behavior so that one can achieve some other goal.
Hostile aggression has the sole goal of causing injury or death to the victim.
Gender and personality moderate the expression of aggression.
Gender.
Males are more likely than females to engage in aggression that produces pain or physical injury.
Instrumental aggression may be more likely for men; hostile aggression for women.
Women are more likely to use indirect aggression than men.
Personality.
Three personality traits related to aggression are irritability, rumination, and emotional susceptibility.
Delegitimizing outgroups promotes and justifies aggression.
Delegitimization removes the target outgroup from the perceived "world" of humanity and lets aggressive people feel less inhibited about their violence.
II. The Biology of Aggression
Our evolutionary history may have led to the development of aggressive behavior patterns.
Aggression increases the likelihood that an individual will survive and successfully reproduce.
Evolutionary theory predicts differences between the sexes in level of aggressiveness.
Unlike instinct theory, evolutionary theory focuses on genetic survival (cf. individual survival).
Hard to use this theory to explain differences in aggression across cultures or within a culture over time.
A number of biological factors influence aggressive behavior.
Behavior genetics.
Twin studies suggest that aggressiveness is heritable, although there are limitations to the studies conducted thus far.
Hormonal activity.
Low levels of seratonin and high levels of testosterone have been linked to aggression.
III. Aggression as a Reaction to Negative Affect
The frustration-aggression hypothesis asserts that aggression is always the product of frustration.
Original propositions included:
frustration will always elicit the drive to attack others;
every act of aggression could be traced to some previous frustration; and
engaging in aggression causes catharsis, which is the reduction in the aggressive drive following an aggressive act.
Later modifications included:
consideration of the intent to aggress,
frustration is one of many possible causes of aggression, and
little or no support for catharsis hypothesis.
The cognitive-neoassociationist model explains our initial reaction to provocation.
Cognitive-associative networks.
Networks, initially weak, become stronger as they are accessed.
Initial "fight" or "flight" tendencies.
An aversive event activates two networks at the same time.
"Unthinking" aggressive responses.
Higher-order cognitive intervention.
The "heat hypothesis."
Aggressive cues as "triggers" of aggression.
Alcohol consumption increases the likelihood of aggression.
Decreases inhibitions.
Excitation transfer can intensify hostility-based aggression.
IV. Learning Aggressive Behavior
Social learning theory emphasizes the acquisition and maintenance of aggressive behavior.
The rewards of aggression.
Periodic reinforcement can make extinction extremely difficult.
Observational learning.
We most often learn by watching and imitating others without being directly rewarded for doing so.
The formation of aggressive scripts.
Children's aggressive scripts are often derived by observing the aggressive actions of others.
Observing media violence may foster aggressive behavior
through aggressive scripts,
through desensitization, and
through cognitive priming.
The "culture of honor" encourages male violence.
In cultures that place a high value on honor, males learn from childhood that it is important to project a willingness to fight to the death against insults and to vigorously protect their property.
V. Sexual Aggression
Pornography promotes a belief in the "rape myth" and may increase male violence against women.
The rape myth.
Mistaken belief that women enjoy forcible sex and find it sexually exciting.
Does pornography provoke male aggression against women?
Exposure to violent pornography increases men's acceptance of the rape myth.
Culture-based sexual scripts make acquaintance rape more likely.
The resistant female role.
There is a traditional sexual script in which the woman's role is to act resistant to sex and the man's role is to persist in his sexual advances despite the woman's protests
The predator male role
tends to be more sexually active than other men,
treats women as if they were his property,
generally has a history of antisocial behavior, and
displays a lot of anger toward women.
Sexual jealousy often leads to intimate violence.
In early-stage romantic relationships, especially first dates, predatory violence appears to be most common.
In later stages, the violence that occurs tends to be relational; that is, primarily motivated by jealousy and rejection.
VI. Reducing Aggression
Punishment can both decrease and increase aggression
In order for punishment to be effective, it must be
prompt,
relatively strong, and
consistently applied.
An aggressive punisher may serve as an aggressive model.
Inducing incompatible responses can inhibit aggression.
Inducing responses or emotions incompatible with anger or overt aggression may effectively deter such actions.
Teaching nonaggressive responses to provocation can effectively control aggression.
Social modeling: teaching by example.
Nonaggressive models can urge observers to exercise restraint in the face of provocation.
Internalizing antiaggressive beliefs.
Apologies as aggression controllers.
Social skills training.
VII. Applications: How Can Acquaintance Rape Be Prevented?
