Anger is a powerful emotion. We can easily recount examples of anger that have harmed not only others but the angry individual as well: unrestrained and recurrent violence toward others, verbal and physical abuse of children, perpetual bitterness, the tendency to carry a "chip on the shoulder" or continually overinterpret others' actions as demeaning, the inability to inhibit the expression of anger.

People often get angry when they feel they are not being treated fairly or when their expectations are violated. One researcher asked people to remember or keep records of their anger experiences (Averill, 1983). Most of the people said they became at least mildly angry several times a week; some said they became mildly angry several times a day. In many instances, the people said they got angry because they perceived that a friend or a loved one performed a misdeed. They especially got angry when they perceived the other person's behavior as unjustified, avoidable, and willful (Zillman, 1998).

What should people do when they feel angry? Catharsis is the release of anger or aggressive energy by directly or vicariously engaging in anger or aggression. The catharsis hypothesis, which is a tenet of psychodynamic theory, states that behaving angrily or watching others behave angrily reduces subsequent anger. From this perspective, taking out your anger on someone else should reduce your tendency to display anger later--as should viewing the displays of anger and aggression so common on television and in movies, in sports like football, hockey, and professional wrestling, and in other aspects of our culture. Such experiences are thought to release pent-up anger.

Social cognitive theory argues strongly against this view. This theory states that by acting angrily, people often prevail against others and thus are rewarded for their anger. And by watching others display anger, people learn how to be angry themselves.

Which view is right? Research on catharsis suggests that acting angrily does not have any long-term power in reducing anger. If the catharsis hypothesis were correct, war would reduce anger and aggression in the aftermath. But a study of wars in 110 countries since 1900 showed that warfare actually stimulates domestic violence (Archer & McDaniel, 1995; Archer & Gartner, 1976). Compared with nations that remained at peace, postwar nations saw an increase in homicide rates.

As psychologist Carol Tavris (1989) says in her book Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion, one of the main results of the ventilation approach to anger is to raise the noise level of our society, not to reduce anger or solve our problems. Individuals who are the most prone to anger get angrier, not less angry. Ventilating anger often follows this cycle: a precipitating event, an angry outburst, shouted recriminations, screaming or crying, a furious peak (sometimes accompanied by physical assault), exhaustion, and finally a sullen apology or just sullenness.

Every person gets angry at one time or another. How can we control our anger so it does not become destructive? Mark Twain once remarked, "When angry, count four; when very angry, swear." Tavris would agree with Twain's first rule, if not the second. She makes the following recommendations (Tavris, 1989):

• When your anger starts to boil and your body is getting emotionally aroused, lower the arousal level by waiting. Emotional arousal will usually decrease if you just wait long enough.
• Cope with the anger in positive ways. Avoid being chronically angry over every little annoyance or passively sulking, which simply rehearses your reasons for being angry.
• Form a self-help group with others who have been through similar experiences with anger. The other people will likely know what you are feeling, and together you might come up with some good solutions to anger problems.
• Take action to help others, which can put your own miseries in perspective. This is the approach of the women who organized Mothers Against Drunk Driving and of any number of other people who have worked to change conditions so that others will not suffer as they did.
• Seek ways of breaking out of your usual perspective. Some people have been rehearsing their "story" for years, repeating over and over the reasons for their anger. Retelling the story from other participants' points of view often helps individuals to find routes to empathy.

1		Research suggests that an extremely angry person should _______________.
			A)	avoid the offending person or situation
			B)	release the anger through some aggressive action
			C)	take time to let the anger subside
			D)	mentally rehearse the reasons to be angry
2		The release of anger or aggressive energy by directly or vicariously engaging in anger or aggression is .
3		A clinical psychologist who recommends that a person watch violent television shows in order reduce anger believes in .
4		How might you counsel someone with anger issues? Put together a presentation from a psychological perspective. For help, go to www.apa.org/pubinfo/anger.html.