Selection 11: Plants: Could We Do Without Them?
(biology)

1. Plants define and are the producers in most ecosystems. Humans derive most of their sustenance from three flowering plants: wheat, corn, and rice. All three of these plants are in the grass family and are collectively, along with other species, called grains. Most of the Earth's 5.6 billion people live a simple way of life, growing their food on family plots. The continued growth of these plants is essential to human existence. A virus or other disease could hit any one of these three plants and cause massive loss of life from starvation.
2. Wheat, corn, and rice originated and were first cultivated in different parts of the globe. Wheat is commonly used in the United States to produce flour and bread. It was first cultivated in the Near East (Iran, Iraq, and neighboring countries) about 8,000 B.C.; hence, it is thought to be one of the earliest cultivated plants. Wheat was brought to North America in 1520 by early settlers; now the United States is one of the world's largest producers of wheat. Corn, or what is properly called maize, was first cultivated in Central America about 7,000 years ago. Disagreement still exists as to exactly what the wild plant looked like and where it originally grew. The most recent theory is that maize was developed from a plant called teosinte, which grows in the highlands of central Mexico. By the time Europeans were exploring Central America, over 300 varieties were already in existence—growing from Canada to Chile. We now commonly grow six major varieties of corn: sweet, pop, flour, dent, pod, and flint. Rice had its origin in southeastern Asia several thousand years ago, where it grew in swamps. Today we are familiar with white and brown rice, which differ in the extent of processing. Brown rice results when the seeds are threshed to remove the hulls—the seed coat and complete embryo remain. If the seed coat and embryo are removed, leaving only the starchy endosperm, white rice results. Unfortunately, the seed coat and embryo are a good source of vitamin B and fat-soluble vitamins. Today, rice is grown throughout the tropics and subtropics where water is abundant. It is also grown in some parts of western United States by flooding diked fields with irrigation water.
3. Do you have an "addiction" to sugar? This simple carbohydrate comes almost exclusively from two plants—sugarcane (grown in South America, Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean) and sugar beets (grown mostly in Europe and North America). Each provides about 50% of the world's sugar.
4. Many foods are bland or tasteless without spices. In the Middle Ages, wealthy Europeans
5. spared no cost to obtain spices from the Near and Far East. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, major expeditions were launched in an attempt to find better and cheaper routes for spice importation. The explorer Columbus convinced the queen of Spain that he would find a shorter route to the Far East by traveling west by ocean rather than east by land. Columbus's idea was sound, but he encountered a little barrier, the New World. This discovery later provided Europe with a wealth of new crops, including corn, potatoes, peppers, and tobacco.
6. Our most popular drinks—coffee, tea, and cola—also come from flowering plants. Coffee originated in Ethiopia, where it was first used (along with animal fat) during long trips for sustenance and to relieve fatigue. Coffee as a drink was not developed until the thirteenth century in Arabia and Turkey, and it did not catch on in Europe until the seventeenth century. Tea is thought to have been developed somewhere in central Asia. Its earlier uses were almost exclusively medicinal, especially among the Chinese, who still drink tea for medical reasons. The drink as we now know it was not developed until the fourth century. By the mid-seventeenth century it had become popular in Europe. Cola is a common ingredient in tropical drinks and was used around the turn of the century, along with the drug coca (used to make cocaine), in the "original” Coca-Cola.
7. Plants have been used for centuries for a number of important household items, including the house itself. We are most familiar with lumber being used as the major structural portion in buildings. This wood comes mostly from a variety of conifers: pine, fir, and spruce, among others. In the tropics, trees and even herbs provide important components for houses. In rural parts of Central and South America, palm leaves are preferable to tin for roofs, since they last as long as ten years and are quieter during a rainstorm. In the Near East, numerous houses along rivers are made entirely of reeds.
8. Before the invention of synthetic fabrics, cotton and other natural fibers were our only source of clothing. The cotton fiber itself comes from filaments that grow on the seed. In sixteenth-century Europe, cotton was a little-understood fiber known only from stories brought back from Asia. Columbus and other explorers were amazed to see the elaborately woven cotton fabrics in the New World. But by 1800, Liverpool was the world's center of cotton trade. (Interestingly, when Levi Strauss wanted to make a tough pair of jeans, he needed a stronger fiber than cotton, so he used hemp. No longer used for clothes, hemp is now known primarily as a hallucinogenic drug—marijuana.) Over thirty species of native cotton now grow around the world, including the United States. China is now the largest producer of cotton.
9. Rubber is another plant that has many uses today. The product had its origin in Brazil from the thick, white sap of the rubber tree. Once collected, the sap is placed in a large vat, where acid is added to coagulate the latex. When the water is pressed out, the product is formed into sheets or crumbled and placed into bales. Much stronger rubber, such as that in tires, was made by adding sulfur and heating in a process called vulcanization; this produces a flexible material less sensitive to temperature changes. Today, though, much rubber is synthetically produced.
10. An actively researched area of plant use today is that of medicinal plants. Currently about 50% of all pharmaceutical drugs have their origins from plants. The treatment of cancers appears to rest in the discovery of miracle plants. Indeed, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and most pharmaceutical companies have spent millions (or, more likely, billions) of dollars to send botanists out to collect and test plant samples from around the world. Tribal medicine men, or shamans, of South America and Africa have already been of great importance in developing numerous drugs.
11. Over the centuries, malaria has caused far more human deaths than any other disease. After European scientists became aware that malaria can be treated by quinine, which comes from the bark of the cinchona tree, a synthetic form of the drug, chloroquine, was developed. But by the late 1960s, it was found that some of the malaria parasites, which live in red blood cells, had become resistant to the synthetically produced drug. Resistant parasites were first seen in Africa but are now showing up in Asia and the Amazon. Today, the only 100%-effective drug for malaria treatment must come directly from the cinchona tree, common to northeastern South America.
12. Numerous plant extracts continue to be misused for their hallucinogenic or other effects on the human body: coca for cocaine and crack, opium poppy for morphine, and yam for steroids. In addition to all these uses of plants, we should not forget or neglect the aesthetic value of plants. Flowers brighten any yard, ornamental plants accent landscaping, and trees provide cooling shade during the summer and break the wind of winter days. Plants also produce oxygen, which is so necessary for all plants and animals.

Source: Sylvia Mader, Biology, 8th ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004, pp. 432-33.

Writing Prompts

Directions: Type your responses to the items below.

1			The selection presents more than a dozen major uses of plants. List at least five of these.
2			What is the most surprising fact that you learned in the selection?
3			Today, some species of plants are becoming extinct as humans pollute the environment and destroy conditions that certain plants need to survive. What are some possible implications of the fact that plant species are becoming extinct?

This website presents a "Plants Notebook" sponsored by the Phoenix Zoo.

4			In what ways do Native People (who live in rainforests) view plants differently from Westerners?

Click on the silk floss tree pictured at the end of the selection. List three of uses of this plant that you think are the most interesting or surprising.

http://www.hortonorganics.com/apprenticeship/articles/1999-07.html

This selection is entitled, "In Praise of Plants."

5			In the author's opinion, how has humans' relationship with nature and plants changed from the way it was in part centuries?
6			What are some simple things the author says people can do to "praise the usefulness of plants"?