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Answer: Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that govern the beliefs and behaviors of the people exposed to them. This chapter emphasizes that culture is shared, symbolic, all-encompassing, and integrated. Answer: Animals do not have culture in the sense that anthropologists typically define it: a shared, symbolic set of customs and traditions that govern the beliefs and behaviors of the people exposed to them. Other animals may learn from experience, such as to avoid fire because it hurts, and social animals can learn from other members of their group. Such social learning is particularly important among monkeys and apes. Even cultural learning, which was until recently believed to be unique to humans, is present—albeit in very rudimentary form—in some animals. Humans, however, have a fully developed capacity to use symbols, signs that have no necessary or natural connection to the things they stand for or signify. Answer: As anthropologists define it, all people have culture, since culture is the sum of human beliefs and customs. This contrasts with the nonanthropological definition of "culture," which refers to refinement, good taste, sophistication, education, and appreciation of the fine arts. Answer: Biologically based universals include a long period of infant dependency, year-round sexuality, and a complex brain that enables us to use symbols, languages, and tools. Social universals include life in groups and in some kind of family. Answer: No. While culture can help humans cope with environmental stresses, certain cultural practices can be maladaptive in the long term. For example, air conditioners help us deal with heat, fires and furnaces protect us against the cold, and automobiles allow us to commute to our workplaces. However, such "beneficial" technologies may create new problems, such as long-term environmental damage. |