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| Motivation refers to an internal state that activates behavior and gives direction to our thoughts. Emotions are positive or negative feelings usually accompanied by behavior and physiological arousal that generally occur in response to stimulus situations. Primary motives are motives for things that are necessary for survival, such as food, water, and warmth. Homeostatic mechanisms in the body help to regulate biological imbalances and stimulate actions to restore the proper balance. Hunger is a primary motive that is biologically regulated by three centers in the hypothalamus; one is referred to as the feeding system; another is called the satiety system. The third center both increases and decreases appetite by controlling blood sugar levels. Among humans, the cues that help regulate hunger on a daily basis are stomach contractions and blood sugar levels; body fat levels appear to be involved in the long-term regulation of hunger. Psychological factors, such as learning, emotions, and incentives, are also involved in the regulation of food intake. Thirst is also regulated by the hypothalamus. The cues that help regulate drinking include mouth dryness, loss of water by cells, and reductions in blood volume. Psychological factors such as learning and incentives also help to regulate thirst. Psychological motives are motives that are related to the individual's happiness and well-being, but not to survival. Among the important psychological motives are (1) seeking novel stimulation; (2) seeking an optimal level of arousal (the Yerkes-Dodson law states that if arousal is too low, performance will be inadequate, but if arousal is too high, it may disrupt performance); (3) the motive for affiliation, the preference to be with others; and (4) achievement motivation, the psychological need for success. Richard Solomon has proposed the opponent-process theory to explain how we learn new motives. Motivation can also be characterized as either intrinsic, which refers to motives stimulated by the inherent nature of the activity, or extrinsic, those stimulated by external rewards. According to Maslow, motives are organized in a hierarchy, arranged from the most basic to the most personal and advanced. Emotions are the experiences that give color, meaning, and intensity to our lives. Theories that attempt to explain emotions include the James-Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, and cognitive theories. According to Schachter and Singer, the cognitive process involves interpreting stimuli from both the environment and the body. Most psychologists believe that many basic emotions are primarily inborn but that learning plays an important role in emotions. Aggression is a complex phenomenon, and its origins are the subject of continuing controversy. Freud suggested that all people are born with potent aggressive instincts released through the process of catharsis, while other psychologists believe that aggression is a reaction to the blocking of important motives (the frustration-aggression theory). A third view, held by social learning theorists, explains aggression as learned behavior. Violent youth gangs represent a special challenge to our society. According to Staub, harsh and inadequate parenting, peer rejection of aggressive children, and our society's mixed messages about violence all contribute to the violence of youth gangs. Although many people are dieting to try to lose weight at any given time, there are dangers to dieting. These include the risks of developing anorexia nervosa or bulimia, and the health risks associated with yo-yo dieting. The text recommends not dieting but eating differently, emphasizing exercise, and avoiding lapses in a healthy lifestyle. |